Harsh Singh Rajput 
Introduction Kerendia is the brand name for finerenone, a non-steroidal selective mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (MRA) used to reduce the risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression and cardiovascular complications in adults with chronic kidney disease associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Unlike older steroidal MRAs such as spironolactone and eplerenone, finerenone has a unique non-steroidal … Read more
Introduction Zolpidem is a non-benzodiazepine sedative-hypnotic drug primarily used for the short-term treatment of insomnia. It belongs to a class of medications commonly referred to as “Z-drugs,” which also includes zaleplon and zopiclone/eszopiclone. Although structurally different from benzodiazepines, zolpidem exerts its pharmacological effects through the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. Zolpidem is particularly effective in … Read more
Introduction Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for normal blood coagulation and bone metabolism. It acts as a cofactor in the synthesis of several clotting factors and regulatory proteins through a process known as γ-carboxylation. Without adequate vitamin K, the liver cannot produce fully functional coagulation factors, leading to impaired blood clotting and an … Read more
Introduction Vincristine is a vinca alkaloid antineoplastic agent widely used in the treatment of hematological malignancies and certain solid tumors. It is derived from the Madagascar periwinkle plant, Catharanthus roseus, and acts by disrupting microtubule formation during cell division. Vincristine is a cell cycle-specific chemotherapeutic drug that primarily acts during the M phase (mitosis). Because … Read more
Introduction Verapamil is a non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker (CCB) that is widely used in the treatment of hypertension, angina pectoris, and supraventricular arrhythmias. Unlike dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers that primarily act on vascular smooth muscle, verapamil exerts significant effects on both cardiac muscle and the cardiac conduction system. By inhibiting L-type calcium channels in the … Read more
Introduction Venlafaxine is a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) antidepressant widely used in the treatment of major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder. Unlike selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), venlafaxine enhances both serotonergic and noradrenergic neurotransmission, providing broader modulation of mood-regulating pathways. Venlafaxine is often considered a dual-action antidepressant because its … Read more
Introduction Vasodilators are a diverse group of drugs that produce relaxation of vascular smooth muscle, resulting in widening of blood vessels and improved blood flow. They are commonly used in the management of hypertension, heart failure, angina pectoris, hypertensive emergencies, pulmonary hypertension, and various cardiovascular disorders. The therapeutic effects of vasodilators arise from their ability … Read more
Introduction Valproate (valproic acid, sodium valproate, and divalproex sodium) is a broad-spectrum antiepileptic drug used in epilepsy, bipolar disorder, and migraine prophylaxis. It is effective against multiple seizure types because it acts through several mechanisms, including enhancement of GABAergic neurotransmission, blockade of voltage-gated sodium channels, and inhibition of T-type calcium channels. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) … Read more
Introduction Trazodone is an atypical antidepressant classified as a serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitor (SARI). It is commonly used for major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and insomnia. Unlike SSRIs, trazodone combines serotonin reuptake inhibition with serotonin receptor antagonism, producing antidepressant, anxiolytic, and sedative effects. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) A key exam point is that trazodone … Read more
Introduction Tranexamic acid is an antifibrinolytic (hemostatic) agent used to prevent and control bleeding. It is a synthetic lysine analog that inhibits fibrinolysis by preventing the breakdown of fibrin clots. Tranexamic acid is widely used in trauma, surgery, postpartum hemorrhage, heavy menstrual bleeding, epistaxis, and various bleeding disorders. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) A key exam … Read more
