Introduction Rybelsus is the brand name of oral semaglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist used in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. It is pharmacologically important because it is an orally administered GLP-1 receptor agonist, unlike many other GLP-1 receptor agonists that are given by subcutaneous injection. Rybelsus is used along with diet and … Read more
Introduction Kerendia is the brand name for finerenone, a non-steroidal selective mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (MRA) used to reduce the risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression and cardiovascular complications in adults with chronic kidney disease associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Unlike older steroidal MRAs such as spironolactone and eplerenone, finerenone has a unique non-steroidal … Read more
1.Identification SummaryFirst-line oral antihyperglycemic (biguanide) used in type 2 diabetes mellitus; lowers hepatic glucose output, improves insulin sensitivity, and has minimal risk of hypoglycemia when used alone. Brand NamesGlucophage, Riomet, Fortamet, Glumetza (regional availability varies) NameMetformin BackgroundA synthetic dimethylbiguanide introduced clinically in the mid-20th century; retained on essential-medicine lists worldwide due to efficacy, safety profile, … Read more
Introduction Empagliflozin is an oral sodium–glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor that lowers blood glucose by promoting urinary glucose excretion. It also provides cardiovascular and renal protective benefits, and is approved for type 2 diabetes mellitus, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral, taken once daily Bioavailability ~78% … Read more
Introduction Dapagliflozin is an oral sodium–glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Additionally, it offers benefits in heart failure and chronic kidney disease, independent of its glucose-lowering effects. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral, once daily Bioavailability ~78% Protein Binding ~91% Metabolism Glucuronidation (UGT1A9) Half-life … Read more
Introduction Sitagliptin is an oral dipeptidyl peptidase‑4 (DPP‑4) inhibitor used to manage type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). It improves glycemic control by enhancing incretin hormone activity, leading to increased insulin secretion and decreased glucagon release in a glucose-dependent manner. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral Bioavailability ~87% Protein Binding ~38% Metabolism … Read more
Introduction Liraglutide is a long-acting GLP‑1 receptor agonist, injected once daily. It’s used for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and chronic weight management, and also approved for reducing cardiovascular risk in patients with T2DM and established heart disease. It mimics the effects of endogenous GLP‑1 to improve glycemic control and promote satiety. Step-by-Step Mechanism of … Read more
Introduction SGLT2 inhibitors, also known as “gliflozins,” are a class of oral antidiabetic agents primarily used to manage type 2 diabetes mellitus. They also exhibit notable cardiovascular and renal protective effects, making them valuable in treating heart failure and chronic kidney disease, even in non-diabetic patients. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Absorption … Read more
Introduction Jardiance (empagliflozin) is a sodium–glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor used for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), and chronic kidney disease (CKD). It lowers blood glucose by increasing renal glucose loss and offers cardiovascular and renal benefits. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral (tablet), once … Read more
Introduction Tirzepatide, marketed as Mounjaro for type 2 diabetes and Zepbound for obesity, is a dual GIP/GLP‑1 receptor agonist. This innovative “twincretin” enhances insulin secretion, suppresses glucagon, delays gastric emptying, and promotes satiety. It offers significant HbA₁c reduction and weight loss advantages over GLP‑1 agonists alone. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route … Read more
