Introduction Telmisartan is an angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB) used primarily for the treatment of hypertension and cardiovascular risk reduction. It lowers blood pressure by selectively blocking the actions of angiotensin II at AT1 receptors. Unlike ACE inhibitors, telmisartan does not interfere with bradykinin metabolism, resulting in a lower incidence of cough and angioedema. Telmisartan … Read more
Introduction Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are a class of antidepressant drugs used in major depressive disorder, neuropathic pain, migraine prophylaxis, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and certain anxiety disorders. Common TCAs include amitriptyline, nortriptyline, imipramine, desipramine, and clomipramine. Their primary action is inhibition of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake, leading to increased concentrations of these neurotransmitters in the central nervous … Read more
Introduction Tadalafil is a phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitor used primarily for erectile dysfunction (ED), benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). It enhances the effects of nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation by preventing degradation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). Tadalafil is distinguished from other PDE5 inhibitors by its long duration of action, earning it … Read more
Introduction Tacrolimus is a potent immunosuppressive agent widely used in organ transplantation and autoimmune diseases. It belongs to the calcineurin inhibitor class and suppresses T-lymphocyte activation by inhibiting interleukin-2 (IL-2) production. Tacrolimus is more potent than cyclosporine and plays a crucial role in preventing graft rejection after organ transplantation. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) A key … Read more
Introduction Sulfonylureas are oral antidiabetic drugs used primarily in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. They lower blood glucose levels by stimulating insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells. Common sulfonylureas include glibenclamide (glyburide), glipizide, gliclazide, and glimepiride. These drugs are effective only when functional pancreatic β-cells are present. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) A key exam … Read more
Introduction Sulfasalazine is a disease-modifying antirheumatic drug (DMARD) and anti-inflammatory agent used primarily in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), rheumatoid arthritis, and other autoimmune disorders. It is a prodrug consisting of sulfapyridine linked to 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA, mesalamine) by an azo bond. After reaching the colon, bacterial enzymes cleave the bond, releasing the active components that … Read more
Introduction Steroids, specifically corticosteroids such as prednisone, prednisolone, dexamethasone, hydrocortisone, and methylprednisolone, are potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents. They mimic the actions of endogenous cortisol and regulate the expression of numerous genes involved in inflammation, immunity, metabolism, and stress responses. Corticosteroids are widely used in autoimmune diseases, allergic disorders, inflammatory conditions, organ transplantation, and many … Read more
Introduction Sotalol is an antiarrhythmic medication with both nonselective β-adrenergic blocking activity and potassium channel-blocking properties. It is classified mainly as a Class III antiarrhythmic drug but also exhibits Class II β-blocker effects. Sotalol is used in ventricular arrhythmias and atrial fibrillation to maintain normal cardiac rhythm. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) A key exam point … Read more
Introduction Solifenacin is an antimuscarinic medication primarily used in overactive bladder and urge urinary incontinence. It works by selectively blocking muscarinic receptors in the urinary bladder, reducing involuntary bladder contractions and improving urinary storage capacity. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) A key exam point is that solifenacin blocks M3 muscarinic receptors in the bladder, reducing detrusor … Read more
Introduction Sodium nitroprusside is a potent intravenous vasodilator used mainly in hypertensive emergencies and acute heart failure. It rapidly reduces both preload and afterload through release of nitric oxide (NO), causing relaxation of vascular smooth muscle. Because of its rapid onset and short duration, it is commonly used in intensive care settings with continuous blood … Read more
