Introduction Tranexamic acid is an antifibrinolytic (hemostatic) agent used to prevent and control bleeding. It is a synthetic lysine analog that inhibits fibrinolysis by preventing the breakdown of fibrin clots. Tranexamic acid is widely used in trauma, surgery, postpartum hemorrhage, heavy menstrual bleeding, epistaxis, and various bleeding disorders. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) A key exam … Read more
Introduction Tramadol is a centrally acting analgesic used for the management of moderate to moderately severe pain. It has a unique dual mechanism of action, functioning as both a weak μ-opioid receptor agonist and an inhibitor of norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake. This combination provides effective pain relief while producing less respiratory depression than many traditional … Read more
Introduction Tolterodine is an antimuscarinic agent used primarily for the treatment of overactive bladder (OAB) with symptoms such as urinary urgency, urinary frequency, and urge urinary incontinence. It reduces involuntary bladder contractions by blocking muscarinic receptors in the urinary bladder, thereby increasing bladder storage capacity and improving urinary control. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) A key … Read more
Introduction Tizanidine is a centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxant used primarily for the management of spasticity associated with conditions such as multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, stroke, and other neurological disorders. It reduces excessive muscle tone by inhibiting excitatory neurotransmission within the central nervous system. Unlike neuromuscular blocking agents, tizanidine acts at the spinal cord … Read more
Introduction Timolol is a nonselective β-adrenergic receptor blocker widely used in glaucoma, ocular hypertension, hypertension, angina pectoris, migraine prophylaxis, and certain cardiac arrhythmias. In ophthalmology, timolol is particularly important because it lowers intraocular pressure by reducing aqueous humor production. Unlike many glaucoma medications, it does not significantly affect pupil size or accommodation. Mechanism of Action … Read more
Introduction Thyroid hormones, primarily triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), regulate metabolism, growth, development, and energy utilization throughout the body. T4 is the major hormone secreted by the thyroid gland, while T3 is the more biologically active form. Most circulating T4 is converted to T3 in peripheral tissues. Thyroid hormones exert their effects mainly through nuclear … Read more
Introduction Thiazolidinediones (TZDs), also known as glitazones, are oral antidiabetic agents used in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The main drugs in this class are pioglitazone and rosiglitazone. Unlike sulfonylureas, TZDs do not stimulate insulin secretion. Instead, they improve insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), a nuclear … Read more
Introduction Thiazide diuretics are commonly used antihypertensive and diuretic agents that increase sodium and water excretion by inhibiting sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) of the nephron. Common thiazide diuretics include hydrochlorothiazide, chlorothiazide, and bendroflumethiazide, while thiazide-like diuretics include chlorthalidone, indapamide, and metolazone. These drugs are widely used in hypertension, edema, heart failure, … Read more
Introduction Terbinafine is an allylamine antifungal agent used for the treatment of dermatophyte infections such as tinea pedis, tinea corporis, tinea cruris, and onychomycosis. It exerts a fungicidal effect by inhibiting ergosterol synthesis in fungal cell membranes. The drug is particularly effective against dermatophytes and is one of the most commonly prescribed oral antifungal medications … Read more
Introduction Theophylline is a methylxanthine bronchodilator used in the management of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It relaxes bronchial smooth muscle, improves diaphragmatic contractility, and exerts mild anti-inflammatory effects. Although its use has declined because of its narrow therapeutic index and potential toxicity, it remains an important drug in respiratory pharmacology. Mechanism of … Read more
