USMLE Pharmacology - Pharmacy Freak

Mechanism of Action of Atomoxetine

August 1, 2025 Harsh Singh Rajput

Introduction Atomoxetine is a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI) approved for the treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). It is a non-stimulant alternative to conventional stimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamines, especially beneficial for patients at risk of substance abuse or with contraindications to stimulants. Mechanism of Action (Stepwise) Pharmacokinetics Clinical Uses Adverse Effects Comparative Analysis Feature … Read more

Mechanism of Action of ARBs

April 10, 2026August 1, 2025 Pharmacy Freak Editorial Team Harsh Singh Rajput

Introduction Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARBs) are a class of drugs primarily used in the management of hypertension, heart failure, and diabetic nephropathy. They selectively inhibit the binding of angiotensin II to the angiotensin type 1 (AT₁) receptor, providing an alternative to ACE inhibitors with fewer adverse effects like cough and angioedema. Mechanism of Action (Stepwise) … Read more

Mechanism of Action of Jardiance (Empagliflozin)

April 10, 2026July 3, 2025 Pharmacy Freak Editorial Team Harsh Singh Rajput

Introduction Jardiance (empagliflozin) is a sodium–glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor used for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), and chronic kidney disease (CKD). It lowers blood glucose by increasing renal glucose loss and offers cardiovascular and renal benefits. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral (tablet), once … Read more

Mechanism of Action of Wellbutrin (Bupropion)

April 10, 2026July 2, 2025 Pharmacy Freak Editorial Team Harsh Singh Rajput

Introduction Wellbutrin (bupropion) is an atypical antidepressant and smoking cessation aid. It primarily works by inhibiting reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine, without affecting serotonin. Additionally, it acts as a nicotinic receptor antagonist, reducing nicotine cravings. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral (IR, SR, XL formulations) Bioavailability ~5–20% Time to Peak (Tmax) … Read more

Mechanism of Action of Januvia (Sitagliptin)

April 10, 2026July 2, 2025 Pharmacy Freak Editorial Team Harsh Singh Rajput

Introduction Januvia (sitagliptin) is an oral dipeptidyl peptidase‑4 (DPP‑4) inhibitor used to improve glycemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). It enhances incretin levels, thereby increasing insulin secretion and lowering glucagon in a glucose-dependent manner. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral (tablet) Bioavailability ~87% Time to Peak (Tmax) ~1–4 hours Protein … Read more

Mechanism of Action of Anakinra

April 10, 2026July 2, 2025 Pharmacy Freak Editorial Team Harsh Singh Rajput

Introduction Anakinra is a recombinant human interleukin‑1 receptor antagonist (IL‑1Ra) used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, neonatal-onset multisystem inflammatory disease (NOMID), and other autoinflammatory conditions. It competitively inhibits IL‑1α and IL‑1β binding to IL‑1 receptors, effectively reducing inflammation. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Subcutaneous injection (daily) Bioavailability ~95% Time to Peak (Tmax) … Read more

Mechanism of Action of Farxiga (Dapagliflozin)

April 10, 2026July 1, 2025 Pharmacy Freak Editorial Team Harsh Singh Rajput

Introduction Dapagliflozin (trade name Farxiga) is a sodium–glucose co‑transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor used in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). It lowers blood glucose by promoting renal excretion of glucose and also provides cardiovascular and renal benefits beyond glycemic control. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral … Read more

Mechanism of Action of Bupropion

April 10, 2026July 1, 2025 Pharmacy Freak Editorial Team Harsh Singh Rajput

Introduction Bupropion is an atypical antidepressant primarily used to treat major depressive disorder, seasonal affective disorder, and as an aid for smoking cessation. Unlike SSRIs, bupropion exerts its effects via modulation of dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmission, offering a unique mechanism without significant serotonergic side effects. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral … Read more

Mechanism of Action of Lokelma (Sodium Zirconium Cyclosilicate)

July 4, 2025July 1, 2025 Pharmacy Freak Editorial Team Harsh Singh Rajput

Introduction Lokelma is an oral, non-absorbed potassium binder used to treat hyperkalemia. It works by selectively trapping potassium ions in the gastrointestinal tract, thereby lowering serum potassium levels and promoting potassium excretion via feces. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Clinical Uses Adverse Effects Comparative Analysis Lokelma offers higher selectivity and fewer systemic effects than … Read more

Mechanism of Action of Finerenone (Kerendia)

July 4, 2025July 1, 2025 Pharmacy Freak Editorial Team Harsh Singh Rajput

Introduction Finerenone is a nonsteroidal, selective mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (MRA) approved for reducing the risk of cardiovascular and renal events in adults with chronic kidney disease (CKD) associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Unlike steroidal MRAs such as spironolactone, finerenone offers greater mineralocorticoid receptor selectivity, minimizing off-target hormonal effects. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic … Read more