Introduction Sitagliptin is an oral dipeptidyl peptidase‑4 (DPP‑4) inhibitor used to manage type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). It improves glycemic control by enhancing incretin hormone activity, leading to increased insulin secretion and decreased glucagon release in a glucose-dependent manner. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral Bioavailability ~87% Protein Binding ~38% Metabolism … Read more
Introduction Vortioxetine is a multimodal antidepressant approved for major depressive disorder (MDD). It uniquely combines serotonin transporter (SERT) inhibition with agonist, partial agonist, and antagonist actions at various serotonin receptors, enhancing efficacy on mood, cognition, and anxiety. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral tablet, once daily Bioavailability ~75–90% Time to Peak … Read more
Introduction Natalizumab is a humanized IgG4 monoclonal antibody targeting the α4 integrin subunit. It’s approved for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) and moderate to severe Crohn’s disease. By blocking leukocyte adhesion, it prevents immune cell migration into the brain and gut. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Intravenous infusion Half-life ~11 days Distribution … Read more
Introduction Remdesivir is an intravenous antiviral prodrug that inhibits viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). Originally developed for Ebola, it is approved for COVID-19 in hospitalized and non-hospitalized high-risk patients. It also shows activity against several RNA viruses. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Intravenous infusion (single or multiple doses) Distribution Extensive tissue … Read more
Introduction Adalimumab is a fully human monoclonal IgG1 antibody that specifically targets tumor necrosis factor‑α (TNF‑α). By neutralizing TNF‑α, it reduces inflammation across a variety of autoimmune conditions, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis (PsA), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and plaque psoriasis. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Subcutaneous … Read more
Introduction Entyvio (vedolizumab) is a recombinant humanized IgG1 monoclonal antibody that targets the α4β7 integrin on gut-homing T-lymphocytes. It is approved for moderate to severe ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease, particularly in patients who have not responded to or cannot tolerate TNF antagonists. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Intravenous infusion (300 mg) … Read more
Introduction Etanercept is a biologic fusion protein that functions as a soluble tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor. By binding TNF-α and TNF-β in circulation, it blocks their interaction with cell surface receptors, reducing systemic inflammation. It is approved for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis (PsA), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA), and plaque psoriasis. … Read more
Introduction Tofacitinib is an oral Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor, primarily targeting JAK1 and JAK3. It blocks intracellular signaling of multiple inflammatory cytokines and is approved for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis (PsA), ulcerative colitis (UC), and other immune-mediated diseases. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral Bioavailability ~74% Time to Peak (Tmax) … Read more
Introduction Liraglutide is a long-acting GLP‑1 receptor agonist, injected once daily. It’s used for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and chronic weight management, and also approved for reducing cardiovascular risk in patients with T2DM and established heart disease. It mimics the effects of endogenous GLP‑1 to improve glycemic control and promote satiety. Step-by-Step Mechanism of … Read more
Introduction SGLT2 inhibitors, also known as “gliflozins,” are a class of oral antidiabetic agents primarily used to manage type 2 diabetes mellitus. They also exhibit notable cardiovascular and renal protective effects, making them valuable in treating heart failure and chronic kidney disease, even in non-diabetic patients. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Absorption … Read more
