Introduction Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is an endogenous incretin hormone secreted from the L-cells of the distal ileum and colon in response to food intake. It plays a critical role in regulating glucose homeostasis and energy balance. GLP-1 acts through specific receptors found in the pancreas, gastrointestinal tract, and central nervous system to modulate insulin secretion, … Read more
Introduction Midodrine is a prodrug used in the treatment of symptomatic orthostatic hypotension. It works by increasing vascular tone through selective stimulation of alpha-1 adrenergic receptors after being metabolized into its active form, desglymidodrine. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral Bioavailability Approximately 93% Active Form Desglymidodrine Tmax 1–2 hours Half-life 3–4 … Read more
Introduction Vedolizumab is a humanized IgG1 monoclonal antibody used for the treatment of moderate to severe ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. It selectively targets the gastrointestinal immune system, offering gut-specific immunomodulation with minimal systemic immunosuppression. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Intravenous infusion Bioavailability Not applicable (IV administration) Half-life ~25.5 days Volume … Read more
Introduction Aripiprazole is an atypical antipsychotic used to treat schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder (as adjunct), irritability in autism, and Tourette’s syndrome. Its unique action as a dopamine D₂ partial agonist, along with effects on serotonin receptors, sets it apart from other agents, providing antipsychotic efficacy with a lower risk of certain side effects. … Read more
Introduction Infliximab is a chimeric (murine-human) IgG1 monoclonal antibody that targets tumor necrosis factor‑α (TNF‑α). It is used to treat a range of autoimmune and inflammatory disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis (PsA), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and plaque psoriasis. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Intravenous infusion … Read more
Introduction Dapagliflozin is an oral sodium–glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Additionally, it offers benefits in heart failure and chronic kidney disease, independent of its glucose-lowering effects. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral, once daily Bioavailability ~78% Protein Binding ~91% Metabolism Glucuronidation (UGT1A9) Half-life … Read more
Introduction Sitagliptin is an oral dipeptidyl peptidase‑4 (DPP‑4) inhibitor used to manage type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). It improves glycemic control by enhancing incretin hormone activity, leading to increased insulin secretion and decreased glucagon release in a glucose-dependent manner. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral Bioavailability ~87% Protein Binding ~38% Metabolism … Read more
Introduction Vortioxetine is a multimodal antidepressant approved for major depressive disorder (MDD). It uniquely combines serotonin transporter (SERT) inhibition with agonist, partial agonist, and antagonist actions at various serotonin receptors, enhancing efficacy on mood, cognition, and anxiety. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Oral tablet, once daily Bioavailability ~75–90% Time to Peak … Read more
Introduction Natalizumab is a humanized IgG4 monoclonal antibody targeting the α4 integrin subunit. It’s approved for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) and moderate to severe Crohn’s disease. By blocking leukocyte adhesion, it prevents immune cell migration into the brain and gut. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Intravenous infusion Half-life ~11 days Distribution … Read more
Introduction Remdesivir is an intravenous antiviral prodrug that inhibits viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). Originally developed for Ebola, it is approved for COVID-19 in hospitalized and non-hospitalized high-risk patients. It also shows activity against several RNA viruses. Step-by-Step Mechanism of Action Pharmacokinetic Parameters Parameter Value Route Intravenous infusion (single or multiple doses) Distribution Extensive tissue … Read more
