Pharmacy Freak Editorial Team 
Introduction Antiviral drugs are pharmacological agents that inhibit the replication of viruses within host cells. Unlike antibacterial drugs, which target cell wall or protein synthesis, antivirals act on specific stages of the viral life cycle, including attachment, entry, nucleic acid synthesis, protein processing, and viral release. Mechanism of Action of Antiviral Drugs is based on … Read more
Introduction Antiplatelet drugs are pharmacological agents that inhibit platelet aggregation, thereby preventing arterial thrombosis — a key contributor to myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, and peripheral artery disease. Mechanism of Action of Antiplatelet Drugs involves blocking platelet activation pathways mediated by cyclooxygenase (COX-1), ADP receptors (P2Y₁₂), glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptors, and thromboxane A₂ synthesis. Unlike anticoagulants, which … Read more
Introduction Antihypertensive drugs are pharmacological agents used to lower elevated blood pressure and prevent complications such as stroke, heart failure, myocardial infarction, and renal disease. Mechanism of Action of Antihypertensive Drugs involves reducing vascular resistance, cardiac output, or blood volume, targeting multiple physiological systems including the sympathetic nervous system, renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS), and renal function. … Read more
Introduction Antihistamines are pharmacological agents that counteract the effects of histamine, a biogenic amine released during allergic and inflammatory responses. Mechanism of Action of Antihistamine Drugs involves competitive antagonism at histamine H₁ or H₂ receptors, thereby reducing vasodilation, vascular permeability, smooth muscle contraction, and gastric acid secretion. Clinically, antihistamines are used in the management of … Read more
1. Identification Summary Ester denotes the carboxylate ester functional group with general formula R–C(=O)–OR′ (R, R′ = carbon substituents). Esters are polar, aprotic, H-bond acceptors (C=O, C–O) but not donors, display a characteristic IR C=O band ~1735 cm⁻¹ for saturated aliphatic esters (lower with conjugation or ring strain), and strong C–O stretches ~1050–1300 cm⁻¹. ¹³C … Read more
1. Identification Summary Aldehyde is a carbonyl functional group in which the carbonyl carbon is bonded to one hydrogen and one carbon (R–CHO). It is a terminal, sp², trigonal-planar carbonyl that is strongly electrophilic; hallmark spectroscopic features include a C=O IR band ~1720–1740 cm⁻¹ (lower with conjugation) and a diagnostic aldehydic C–H doublet near ~2720/2820 … Read more
1. Identification Summary Fructose is a ketohexose monosaccharide (C₆H₁₂O₆). It exists predominantly as furanose/pyranose hemiketals in solution and serves as a dietary sugar and endogenous metabolite in human carbohydrate metabolism. Brand Names Not applicable. Name Fructose (D-fructose) Background Naturally present in fruits, honey, and sucrose (as the fructosyl moiety). Principal intestinal transporter GLUT5; hepatic entry … Read more
1. Identification Summary Pyridine is a six-membered nitrogen heteroaromatic (C₅H₅N) isoelectronic with benzene, with a ring sp²-N that is basic (conjugate-acid pKₐ ≈ 5.2). It serves as a solvent, ligand, mild base/nucleophile, and core scaffold in many pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals. Brand Names Not applicable. Name Pyridine Background Aromatically stabilized azabenzene; lone pair on ring nitrogen … Read more
1. Identification Summary Alcohol (functional group) denotes an sp³ carbon bearing a hydroxyl (–OH) substituent: general formula R–OH. Hallmarks: hydrogen bonding, moderate nucleophilicity of the oxygen lone pairs, weak Brønsted acidity (pKₐ ~15–19), and formation of derivatives (ethers, esters, sulfonates). Brand Names Not applicable. Name Alcohol (hydroxyl functional group) Background Classified by substitution at the … Read more
Introduction Antifungal drugs are pharmacological agents that target fungal infections (mycoses) of the skin, mucosa, and internal organs. Mechanism of Action of Antifungal Drugs centers on disruption of ergosterol synthesis, cell membrane integrity, cell wall formation, or nucleic acid synthesis. Fungi are eukaryotic, so selective toxicity is achieved by exploiting pathways unique to fungal cells, … Read more
