Introduction Phenytoin is one of the oldest and most widely used antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), primarily for treating focal seizures and generalized tonic-clonic seizures. It has a well-known profile, acting on voltage-gated sodium channels to reduce high-frequency neuronal firing. Despite newer alternatives, phenytoin remains important, especially in emergency settings like status epilepticus (IV use). It’s a … Read more
Introduction Levetiracetam is a novel, broad-spectrum antiepileptic drug (AED) used in the treatment of partial seizures, myoclonic seizures, and generalized tonic-clonic seizures. It is known for its favorable safety profile, minimal drug interactions, and ease of use in both adults and pediatric patients. Unlike older AEDs, levetiracetam acts through a unique synaptic mechanism. It is … Read more
Introduction Lamotrigine is a broad-spectrum antiepileptic drug (AED) and an effective mood stabilizer, especially in bipolar depression. It is commonly used to treat partial seizures, generalized seizures, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, and maintenance therapy in bipolar disorder. Lamotrigine has a unique profile with low sedation, minimal weight gain, and fewer cognitive side effects, making it ideal for … Read more
Introduction Carbamazepine is a classic antiepileptic drug (AED) and mood stabilizer. It is mainly used to treat partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, trigeminal neuralgia, and bipolar disorder. Its primary action involves blocking voltage-gated sodium channels, which stabilizes neuronal membranes and prevents repetitive firing. It is frequently tested in pharmacology sections of USMLE, NCLEX, GPAT, and … Read more
Introduction Atypical antipsychotics, also known as second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs), are widely used in the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder (as adjuncts), and autism-related irritability. Compared to typical antipsychotics, they offer fewer extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) and better control of negative symptoms of schizophrenia due to their dual action on dopamine and serotonin receptors. … Read more
Introduction Typical antipsychotics, also known as first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs), are primarily used to treat schizophrenia, acute psychosis, and manic episodes. Their therapeutic effect is mainly due to dopamine D2 receptor antagonism in the brain. However, this same action also causes many extrapyramidal side effects (EPS) and hyperprolactinemia. Common FGAs include: These drugs are frequently covered … Read more
Introduction Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are one of the oldest classes of antidepressant medications. Although largely replaced by SSRIs due to their improved safety profiles, TCAs are still widely used for treatment-resistant depression, neuropathic pain, and other off-label conditions. They work by inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin, thereby increasing the levels of these neurotransmitters … Read more
Mechanism of Action of SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) Introduction Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are first-line antidepressants commonly used in the treatment of major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and other psychiatric conditions. They act by increasing the availability of serotonin (5-HT) in the synaptic cleft and are preferred for their favorable … Read more
Introduction Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors are oral antidiabetic agents that reduce postprandial hyperglycemia by delaying carbohydrate digestion and glucose absorption in the intestine. These drugs are especially effective when taken with meals rich in complex carbohydrates. Commonly used agents include: Unlike insulin-dependent agents, they work locally in the gut and have no direct effect on insulin secretion, … Read more
Introduction Thiazolidinediones (TZDs), also known as glitazones, are oral antidiabetic drugs used to improve insulin sensitivity in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Unlike insulin secretagogues, TZDs do not stimulate insulin release—they enhance the body’s response to insulin. Common examples include: They act by binding to PPAR-γ (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma) and modulating gene transcription, … Read more
