Introduction Levetiracetam (brand name: Keppra) is a broad-spectrum antiepileptic drug used in the management of partial seizures, myoclonic seizures, and generalized tonic-clonic seizures. It is known for its unique mechanism of action, favorable safety profile, and minimal drug interactions, making it widely used in both adults and pediatric patients. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) Pharmacokinetics Clinical … Read more
Introduction Ivabradine is a selective heart rate–reducing agent primarily used in the management of chronic stable angina and heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). Unlike beta-blockers, it reduces heart rate without affecting myocardial contractility or blood pressure significantly. Its action is highly specific to the sinoatrial (SA) node. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) Pharmacokinetics Clinical … Read more
Introduction Isotretinoin is an oral retinoid (13-cis-retinoic acid) primarily used in the treatment of severe nodulocystic acne and acne resistant to conventional therapy. It is one of the most effective anti-acne agents because it targets multiple pathogenic factors involved in acne development, including sebum production, follicular keratinization, bacterial proliferation, and inflammation. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) … Read more
Introduction Isoprenaline (isoproterenol) is a non-selective β-adrenergic agonist that stimulates both β1 and β2 receptors. It is used in conditions such as bradycardia, heart block, and occasionally in asthma. Due to its potent cardiac and bronchodilatory effects, it plays an important role in emergency and specific clinical settings. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) Pharmacokinetics Clinical Uses … Read more
Introduction Irinotecan is a semi-synthetic camptothecin derivative used as an antineoplastic agent, primarily in the treatment of colorectal cancer and other solid tumors. It is a prodrug that requires metabolic activation to exert its cytotoxic effects. Irinotecan interferes with DNA replication in rapidly dividing cancer cells, leading to cell death. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) Pharmacokinetics … Read more
Introduction Ipratropium bromide is a short-acting anticholinergic (antimuscarinic) bronchodilator primarily used in the management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and, in some cases, asthma. It is a quaternary ammonium compound derived from atropine, designed for inhalational use with minimal systemic absorption. Its main action is to reduce bronchoconstriction mediated by the parasympathetic nervous system. … Read more
Introduction Indapamide is a thiazide-like diuretic commonly used in the management of hypertension and edema. Although structurally different from classic thiazides, it shares similar pharmacological properties. Indapamide is particularly valued for its dual action, combining diuretic effects with direct vasodilatory activity, making it effective in long-term blood pressure control. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) Pharmacokinetics Clinical … Read more
Introduction Imipramine is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) widely used in the management of major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and certain pediatric conditions such as nocturnal enuresis. It is one of the prototype TCAs and exhibits both antidepressant and sedative properties. Its pharmacological effects are primarily mediated through modulation of monoamine neurotransmitters in the central nervous … Read more
Introduction Ibuprofen is a widely used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) belonging to the propionic acid class. It is commonly used for its analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Ibuprofen is frequently prescribed in conditions such as pain, fever, and inflammatory disorders, making it a staple drug in both clinical and over-the-counter settings. Mechanism of Action (Step-wise) … Read more
Introduction Hydroxychloroquine is an antimalarial drug that also possesses significant immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. It is widely used in the treatment of malaria as well as autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and rheumatoid arthritis. Hydroxychloroquine acts primarily by interfering with lysosomal activity and antigen presentation in immune cells. It also affects Toll-like … Read more
